by William M Brennan, TH.D.

A central question of New Testament theology concerns the identity of the true people of God. Was national Israel—defined by physical descent from Abraham and the old covenant institutions—the final and exhaustive expression of God’s covenant people, or did it serve as a provisional and typological form pointing toward a greater fulfillment? The New Testament writers, and Paul especially, answer this question with theological clarity. They affirm the historical significance of national Israel but distinguish it from the true Israel, a people constituted not by flesh, genealogy, or Mosaic markers, but by faith in God’s promise fulfilled in Christ, the true Seed of Abraham. The Gospels, Acts, Paul’s epistles, Hebrews, and 1 Peter join their testimony to show that the old covenant nation served as a shadow, while Christ and the believing community form the substance.

This essay argues that the NT consistently presents:

National Israel as a real but typological and provisional covenant entity,
Christ as the true, singular Seed of Abraham,
The church—Jew and Gentile united to Christ—as the true people of God, and
The faith of Abraham, prefigured in the miracle-child Isaac, as the determining factor for covenant identity.

I. The Gospels: The Ax at the Root of the Trees and the Sons of Abraham from Stones

The earliest New Testament witness to the redefinition of covenant identity appears in the preaching of John the Baptist, who directly confronts Jewish presumption based on lineage:

“Do not presume to say to yourselves, ‘We have Abraham as our father,’ for I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up sons for Abraham.”
—Matthew 3:9; Luke 3:8

This statement demolishes the idea that biological descent guarantees covenant membership. John asserts that God can create sons of Abraham ex nihilo if necessary—an implicit declaration that true Abrahamic descent is defined by God’s creative and elective power, not by bloodline.

Throughout Jesus’ ministry, the same pattern emerges.

Jesus and the true children of Abraham (John 8:31–47)

When the Jewish leaders claim Abraham as their father, Jesus replies:

“If you were Abraham’s children, you would do the works of Abraham.”

He then identifies their spiritual father as the devil, not Abraham, because they reject the One whom Abraham rejoiced to see (v. 56). Thus Jesus makes covenant identity ethical and spiritual, not merely genealogical. True children of Abraham are those who believe in the promised Christ.

Jesus redefines the family of God (Mark 3:31–35; Matt 12:46–50)

Christ declares that His true family consists of those who “do the will of God.” This redefinition of the covenant family foreshadows the formation of the church as the new household.

The Beatitudes and the new holy nation (Matthew 5:1–12)

Jesus blesses the meek, the pure, the persecuted, the peacemakers—not simply Jews by birth. These are the inheritors of the kingdom. A new covenant people is being described.

The Gospels thus anticipate Paul’s later argument: Israel’s identity is not anchored in flesh but in the promise, faith, and obedience manifested in response to Christ.

II. Paul’s Theodicy in Romans 9–11: Israel of the Flesh vs. Israel of Promise

In Romans 9–11 Paul defends God’s faithfulness despite Israel’s unbelief. His answer:
Israel has always existed in two senses—flesh and promise.

1. Not all Israel is Israel (Rom 9:6)

Paul draws a distinction between the national, fleshly Israel and the spiritual Israel within it. This is not a novelty; it is the consistent pattern of redemptive history.

2. Isaac as the typological seed (Rom 9:7–9)

“Through Isaac shall your seed be named.”

Isaac—born by divine promise and received by Abraham’s faith—is the prototype of the miracle-seed principle. Covenant identity is rooted in God’s call and promise, not biological descent.

3. Jacob and Esau: the principle of election (Rom 9:10–13)

Even twins sharing the same womb are divided by God’s sovereign choice. Thus flesh alone never guaranteed inclusion.

4. The olive tree (Rom 11:16–24)

The tree represents the Abrahamic covenant fulfilled in Christ, not ethnic Israel. The natural branches broken off (unbelieving Jews) and wild branches grafted in (believing Gentiles) both share the same root—the promise fulfilled in Christ.

III. Galatians: Christ the Seed and the Church the Heirs of Promise

Paul’s clearest statement on the identity of the true seed occurs in Galatians.

1. Christ is the singular Seed (Gal 3:16)

“To your seed… who is Christ.”

All Abrahamic promises find their telos in Christ alone. National Israel was the historical incubator of the line, but Christ is the final Seed.

2. Believers are Abraham’s seed (Gal 3:7, 29)

“Those of faith are the sons of Abraham.”
“If you are Christ’s, then you are Abraham’s seed, heirs according to promise.”

This is Paul’s thesis in Romans 9–11 stated in its most explicit form.

3. Hagar and Sarah: two covenants (Gal 4:21–31)

Hagar (flesh) and Sarah (promise) become Paul’s symbols for the two Israels:

Hagar → Sinai → Old Covenant Israel → present Jerusalem
Sarah → promise → heavenly Jerusalem → believers in Christ

This is not supersessionism but eschatological fulfillment. The old covenant nation is earthly and fleshly; the new covenant people are heavenly and spiritual.

IV. Pauline Epistles Beyond Romans and Galatians

1. Philippians 3:3 — The Church as “the Circumcision”

Paul declares:

“For we are the circumcision—who worship by the Spirit of God, glory in Christ Jesus, and put no confidence in the flesh.”

Here the deepest marker of Jewish identity—circumcision—is transferred to the Spirit-filled people of Christ.

2. Ephesians 2 — One New Man

Gentiles, once “alienated from the commonwealth of Israel,” are now brought near and united with believing Jews to form:

“One new man… one body… fellow citizens with the saints.”

This new humanity fulfills Israel’s calling as God’s firstborn nation.

3. Colossians 2:16–17 — Shadows and Substance

The festivals, Sabbaths, and ceremonial laws—markers of Israel’s national identity—are declared:

“a shadow… but the substance is Christ.”

National Israel’s distinctives were never final; they pointed forward to Him.

V. Hebrews: The Old Covenant as Shadow and Copy

Hebrews reinforces the same theological picture:

Hebrews 8:5 — Israel’s priests serve “a copy and shadow of heavenly things.”
Hebrews 10:1 — The Law is “a shadow of the good things to come.”
Hebrews 12:22–24 — Believers, Jew and Gentile, have come to “the heavenly Jerusalem,” the eschatological fulfillment of Israel.

National Israel’s cultic system was intentionally temporary and typological.

VI. 1 Peter: The Church as the Holy Nation and Royal Priesthood

Peter applies Israel’s identity texts (Exod 19:5–6) directly to the multiethnic church:

“You are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for His own possession” (1 Pet 2:9).

This is not metaphor; it is covenantal identity.
The believing community is the reconstituted Israel, founded on Christ the cornerstone.

VII. The Unified NT Vision: Christ the True Israel, Believers the True Seed

Across the New Testament a consistent pattern emerges:

God can raise sons of Abraham from stones
Being Abraham’s child is not by flesh but by faith
Isaac is the miracle-type of Christ, the true Seed
The olive tree is the family of faith rooted in Christ
Christ is the singular Seed of Abraham
Believers are Abraham’s seed and the true circumcision
The old covenant nation was a shadow; Christ and His people are the substance
The church is the chosen race and holy nation
Heavenly Jerusalem supersedes earthly Jerusalem as the covenant center
The gospel creates the true Israel—faith-filled sons and daughters of Abraham

The entire NT chorus points to the same conclusion:
National Israel was the provisional form; Christ and His church are the eschatological reality.

Conclusion

From John the Baptist’s proclamation to Jesus’ teaching, from Paul’s epistles to Peter’s identity-language, and from Hebrews’ shadow/substance theology to Revelation’s depiction of the Lamb’s multinational people, the New Testament testifies with one voice: the true people of God are those who share Abraham’s faith in God’s promise fulfilled in Christ.

National Israel was honored, chosen, and beloved—but it was never the final expression of the covenant. Its institutions were shadows; its history was typological; its purpose was preparatory. In the fullness of time, the true Seed arrived, and in Him a new covenant Israel was born—one rooted not in flesh, but in promise; not in genealogy, but in grace; not in ethnicity, but in union with Christ.

Thus the New Testament presents Christ as the true Israel and the church as the true circumcision, the true seed, and the true holy nation. In Him, the promises to Abraham stand forever fulfilled.

Thursday, November 20, 2025

Israel According to the Flesh and Israel According to Promise: